Commercial item transport and distribution Essay

There has been a gradual change in the mode of packaging for last years.For instance, earlier fruits and vegetables were used to be transported in wooden boxes but today cardboard crates are used .This is mainly to reduce the cost. Obviously,a cardboard crate would cost less than wooden crate. Moreover,using cardboard crates is more eco friendly than cutting trees and making wooden boxes and supporting an environmental cause helps firms improve their goodwill and eventually their sales. Similarly,selling of milk,first in glass bottles,then in packets, then tetra packs and vending machines is all to reduce costs or improve their goodwill by innovating the mode of packaging. Tetra pack keeps the milk safe for months and is made of paper and can be recycled. Plastic packets incur lesser costs and vending machines in itself have no packaging cost. So,companies use new and unique mode of packaging to ,one,reduce their costs,two,to promote the product. Packaging refers to the container or wrapper that holds a product or group of products. Most commercial packaging serves two basic functions: protecting the product from damage during shipping, and promoting the product to the ultimate consumer. Some common types of packaging include shipping cartons, containers for industrial goods, and bags, boxes, cans, and other holders for consumer products. Packaging is of great importance to both sellers and buyers of products. It can prevent spoiling, breakage, tampering, or theft; enhance convenience in use or storage; and make products easier to identify. A significant improvement in packaging can even create a â€Å"new† product by expanding the ways in which it can be used, and thus its potential markets. For example, a soup that is packaged in a microwavable bowl might suddenly increase its sales to working people. Prior to World War II, packaging was used primarily to surround and protect products during storage, transportation, and distribution. Some packages were designed with aesthetic appeal and even for ease-of-use by the end consumer, but package design was typically left to technicians. After World War II, however, companies became more interested in marketing and promotion as a means of enticing customers to purchase their products. As a result, more manufacturers began to view packaging as an integral element of overall business marketing strategies to lure buyers. This increased attention to packaging coincided with socioeconomic changes taking place around the world. As consumers became better educated and more affluent, their expectations of products—and their reliance on them—increased as well. Consequently, consumers began to rely much more heavily on manufactured goods and processed food items. New technologies related to production, distribution, and preservatives led to a massive proliferation in the number and type of products and brands available in industrialized nations. Thus, packaging became a vital means of differentiating items and informing inundated consumers. The importance of consumer packaging was elevated in the United States during the late 1970s and 1980s. Rapid post-war economic expansion and market growth waned during that period, forcing companies to focus increasingly on luring consumers to their product or brand at the expense of the competition. Package design became a marketing science. And, as a new corporate cost-consciousness developed in response to increased competition, companies began to alter packaging techniques as a way to cut production, storage, and distribution expenses. Furthermore, marketers began to view packaging as a tool to exploit existing product lines by adding new items and to pump new life into maturing products. Today, good package design is regarded as an essential part of successful business practice. Since many potential customers first notice a new product after it has arrived on the shelves of a store, it is vital that the packaging provide consumers with the information they need and motivate them to make a purchase. But packaging decisions involve a number of tradeoffs. While making a product visible and distinctive may be the top priority, for example, businesses must also comply with a variety of laws regarding product labeling and safety. Protecting products during transport is important, but businesses also need to keep their shipping costs as low as possible. study mode material : Disadvantages of wooden crates- Deterioration * After wooden pallets are used several times, the wood begins to wear. It splinters, cracks and even breaks under the pressure of continued use. The deterioration is natural and occurs eventually, even if the wood is treated to repel moisture and to strengthen it. This disadvantage leads to replacement much sooner than with plastic pallets. Infestation * Wooden pallets are more susceptible to infestation by termites, ants and other insects that make their home inside the wood. Pallets stored outdoors are more likely to succumb to infestation than the ones kept within a warehouse. The insects burrow into the wood, eating away at it and thus weakening what should be a support structure.. Cleanliness * In addition to germs, wooden pallets are collectors of dirt and debris. Cleaning them becomes more and more difficult over time as the pallets age. They must be heat-treated to get rid of the contamination and washed to be rid of dirt and debris. However, the heat accelerates deterioration, and the water, if improperly dried, can feed mold spores that thrive on wood and harm the vegetables and fruits inside it. Advantages of cardboard crates- Protects Items * As packaging, cardboard protects vegetables being shipped or moved. Corrugated cardboard often has multiple pieces of cardboard placed on top of each other to cushion soft vegetables. Cheap Material * Cardboard is cheap to produce, and is usually made from recycled materials and doesn’t cost much money if purchased wholesale. Other packaging materials are made from plastic, wood or metal, all expensive materials that are often heavier then cardboard, which adds†¦ [continues] Read full essay

Philippine literature Essay

Philippine Literature is a diverse and rich group of works that has evolved side-by-side with the country’s history. Literature had started with fables and legends made by the ancient Filipinos long before the arrival of Spanish influence. The main themes of Philippine literature focus on the country’s pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-political histories of its colonial and contemporary traditions. It is not a secret that many Filipinos are unfamiliar with much of the country’s literary heritage, especially those that were written long before the Spaniards arrived in our country. This is due to the fact that the stories of ancient time were not written, but rather passed on from generation to generation through word of mouth. Only during 1521 did the early Filipinos became acquainted with literature due to the influence of the Spaniards on us. But the literature that the Filipinos became acquainted with are not Philippine-made, rather, they were wor ks of Spanish authors. So successful were the efforts of colonists to blot out the memory of the country’s largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the country’s wealth of ethnic traditions and disseminating them in schools through mass media. The rise of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the â€Å"Filipino identity.† Philippine literature is written in Spanish, English, Tagalog, and/or other native Philippine Languages. Why do we need to study Philippine Literature? Whatever nationality you are it is always very important to study the literature of your country. In doing so you are not only learning about the historical aspects of your land, but you are also keeping alive the thoughts, beliefs and cultural variations of your ancestors that differentiate your country from the rest of the world. A country’s literature also tells us about its civilization in a form other than straight fact.

Mother Tongue and Foreign Language Learning Essay

These five basic theories are, furthermore, very much complementary to each other, serving different types of learners or representing various cases of language learning. They must not automatically make us presume that first and second language learning are identical or alike processes, though second language learning is strongly tied up with first language acquisition. Obviously, native language growth must pave the way for foreign language growth. Then these five basic language learning theories are fundamental pillars of language learning whose relevance to education is undeniable. The Principle of the Behaviorist Theory The behaviorist theory believes that â€Å"infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,† (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include â€Å"learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans† (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). The Background of the Behaviorist Theory I) Behaviorist theory dwells on spoken language. That is, primary medium of language is oral: speech is language because there are many languages without written forms, because we learn to speak before we learn to read and write. Then, language is primarily what is spoken and secondarily what is written. That’s why spoken language must have a pri ¬ority in language teaching. 2)Behaviorist theory is the habit formation theory of language teaching and learning, reminding us the learning of structural grammar. Language learning concerns us by â€Å"not problem-solving but the in ¬formation and performance of habits† (Nelson Brooks, 1960; 46-47). In other words, language learning is a mechanical process leading the learners to habit formation whose underlying scheme is the conditioned reflex. Thus it is definitely true that language is controlled by the con ¬sequences of behavior. 3)The stimulus-response chain, Response, is a pure ease of conditioning. Behaviorist learning theory â€Å"emphasizes conditioning and building from the simplest conditioned responses to more and more complex behaviors† (David S. Palermo, 1978; 19-20). This comes to mean that clauses and sentences are learned linearly as longer and lon ¬ger stimulus-response chains, produced in a left-to right series of sequence like as probabilistic incidents, which are basically Markov’s processes. Each stimulus is thus thc caser of a response, and each response becomes the initiator of a stimulus, and this process goes on and on in this way. 4) All learning is the establishment of habits as the result of rein ¬forcement and reward. Positive reinforcement is reward while negative reinforcement is punishment. In a stimulus situation, a response is exer ¬ted, and if the response is positively augmented by a reward, then the association between the stimulus and response is itself reinforced and thus the response will very likely be manipulated by every appearance of stimulus. The result will yield conditioning. When responses to stimuli are coherently reinforced, then habit formation is established. It is be ¬cause of this fact that this theory is termed habit-formation-by-reinfor ¬cement theory. 5) The learning, due to its socially-conditioned nature, can be the same for each individual. In other words, each person can learn equally if the conditions in which the learning takes place are the same for each person. The behaviorist theory believes that â€Å"infants learn oral language from other human role models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice. Human role models in an infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,† (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards. However, the behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons. If rewards play such a vital component in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child attempts speech? If a baby’s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)? Other cases against this theory include â€Å"learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans† (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004). Behaviorist theory, which is basically a psychological theory in its essence, founded by J. B. Watson, is actually a theory of native language learning, advanced in part as a reaction to traditional grammar. The supporters of this theory are Leonard Bloomfield, O. N. Mowrer, B. F. Skinner, and A. W. Staats. Behaviorism was advanced in America as a new approach to psychology in the early decades of the 20th-century by making a particular emphasis on the importance of verbal behavior, and received a considerable trust from the educational world of 1950s. The major principle of the behaviorist theory rests on the analyses of human behavior in observable stimulus-response interaction and the association between them. E. L. T. Thorndike was the first behaviorist to explore the area that learning is the establishment of associations on particular process of behavior and consequences of that behavior. Basically, â€Å"the behaviorist theory of stimulus-response learning, particularly as developed in the operant conditioning model of Skinner, considers all learning to be the establishment of habits as a result of reinforcement and reward† (Wilga Rivers, 1968, 73). This is very reminiscent of Pavlov’s experiment which indicates that stimulus and response work together. According to this category, the babies obtain native language habits via varied babblings which resemble the appropriate words repeated by a person or object near him. Since for his babblings and mutterings he is rewarded, this very reward reinforces further articulations of the same sort into grouping of syllables and words in a similar situation. In this way, he goes on emitting sounds, groups of sounds, and as he grows up he combines the sentences via generalizations and analogy (as in *goed for went, *doed, for did, so on), which in some complicated cases, condition him to commit errors by articulating in permissible structures in speech. By the age of five or six, or babblings and mutterings grow into socialized speech but little by little they are internalized as implicit speech, and thus many of their utterances become indistinguishable from the adults. This, then, obviously, means that behaviorist theory is a theory of stimulus-response psychology. â€Å"Through a trial-and-error process, in which acceptable utterances are reinforced by comprehension and approval, and un acceptable utterances are inhibited by the lack of reward, he gradually learns to make finer and finer discriminations until his utterances approximate more and more closely the speech of the community in which he is growing up (Wilga M. Rivers, 1968; 73). To put it in other words, children develop a natural affinity to learn the language of their social surroundings whose importance both over language learning and teaching must never be underestimated. In this respect behaviorist theory stresses the fact that â€Å"human and animal learning is a process of habit formation. A highly complex learning task, according to this theory may be learned by being broken’ down into smaIl habits. These are formed correct or incorrect responses, are rewarded or, punished, respectively ‘. (Hubbard Jones and Thornton Wheeler, 1983; 326). Thus it is clear that the acquisition of learning in infancy is governed the acquisition of other habits. Basic Tenents of Behaviorist Theory The following principles illustrate the operating principles of behaviorism: Counterarguments on Behaviorist Theory of Language Learning Needless to say, language teaching anticipates certain theories on language learning because language learning as a fruitful area that embodies the working of human behavior and mental processes of the learners. Each theory may not be complete model for the investigation of language learning. The following counter-arguments can be made upon the working principles of behaviorist theory: 1) Basic strategies of language learning within the scope of behaviorist theory are imitation, reinforcement, and rewarding. However, researches made on the acquisition of learning have demonstrated that children’s imitation of structures show evidence of almost no innovation; moreover children â€Å"vary considerably in the amount that they imitate† (L. M. Bloom, L. Hood, and P. L. Lightbown, 1974; 380-420). Since children do not imitate such structures like words, phrases, clauses and sentences at the same rate they will naturally learn at different rates even though it must be admitted that imitation is very useful in the acquisition of new vocabulary items. As for reinforcement, â€Å"Unfortunately this view of learning receives little support from the available evidence† (Herbert H. Clark and Eve V. Clark, 1977; 336), for the parents only correct the sample structures, and complex structures are occasionally corrected. 2) In behaviorist theory, the process of learning relies more on generalization, rewarding, conditioning, three of which support the development of analogical learning in children. But it can be argued that a process of learning or teaching that encourages the learner to construct phrases, clauses and sentences modeled on previously settled set of rules and drills is thought to obstruct the instinctive production of language. Then, habit formation exercises may not naturally promote intrinsically oriented language learning. 3) Obstructions made on instinctively-based learning will doubtedlessly harm the creative way of learning. It takes a long time to be capable enough to master a language at least a bit intrinsically. There is a threshold level in language learning. This means that learners must learn consciously supported by repetition and drilling to build up an effective linguistic intuition, acquisition of which marks the establishment of threshold level. Before obtaining the threshold level, the language learner is not creative, cannot use the language properly in new situations in a real sense. it is, then, obvious that the intrinsic learning will be delayed, owing to the Iate acquisition of threshold level because of previously settled set of rules and drills. 4) The rate of social influence on learning is not satisfactorily explained. To what extent and rate, does the social surrounding promote language learning? This question remains unexplained. 5) It is highly unlikely for learning to be the same for each individual; that is, each person cannot learn equally well in the same conditions in which learning takes place, for the background and the experience of the learners make everybody learn differently. In addition, according to Chomsky, there must be some innate capacities which human beings possess that predispose them to look for basic patters in language. 6) The main strategies of the behaviorist theory can only be true for the early stages of learning which takes place when the kids are in infancy and in early childhood periods. Moreover, this theory is fruitful for the most part on animal experimentation and learning. 7) Many of the learning processes are mostly too complex, and for this reason there are intervening variable s, which cannot be observed between stimulus and response. â€Å"That’s why, language acquisition cannot take place through habit formation, since language learners are thrown between stimulus and response chain, for language is too far complicated to be learned in such a matter, especially given the brief time available. CONCLUSION It is clear that language learning and its development, for the behaviorists, is a matter of conditioning by means of imitation, practice, reinforcement, and habituation, which constitute the paces of language acquisition. It must be born in mind that all behavioristic theories of learning are associationistic, including Thorndike’s, Guthrie’s, Hull’s, Skinner’s, and the theory of the school of functionalism. Apparently, behaviorism has its shortcomings, but it cannot be denied that learning process is for the most part a behavioristic processing, a verbal behavior. In language teaching area, behaviorism establishes the basic background of exercises, either oral or written in viewing language as stimulus and response. In addition, it gives a great deal of insight into the recognition of the use of controlled observation to discover the laws of behavior. It has exerted a great impact by influencing many teaching methods on the area of language teaching, for example, Audiolingual Method, Total Physical Response, and Silent Way embody the behaviorist view of language; also, British Structuralism has created the theory of language called Situational Language Teaching. In a word behaviorist theory aims at discovering behavioral justifications for designing language teaching in certain ways, being a hub a of many language teaching and learning theories. It must not be forgotten that it has given a push for the creation of empiricist language learning which became very fashionable in U . S. A. and in Europe. BIBLlOGRAPHY Bloom, L. M. (1974). â€Å"Imitations in Language Development: If, When, and Why†, â€Å"Cognitive Psychology†, pp. 380-420. Brooks, Nelson (1960). â€Å"Language and Language Learning†. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Clark, Herbert and Eve Clark (1977). â€Å"Language and Psychology: An Introduction to Psycholinguistics†. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich. Jones, Hubbard and Thornton Wheeler (1983). † A Training Course for TEFL†. Oxford University Press. Palermo, David S. (1978). â€Å"Psychology of Language†. Dallas: Scott, Foresman and Co. Rivers, M. Wilga (1968). â€Å"Teaching Foreign Language Skills†. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 27

Marketing - Essay Example These markets have huge growth potential of the business. It can as well start online business prospects for its clientele around the globe. The market is persistently working to develop its distribution channels and enter new markets. The political structures within the United States and the other countries such as Canada and Japan are excellent forms of government for the business. One of the major threats within the industry is the aggressive competition from the established market players. The Spitalfields is not just competing in single sector or market but it competes with an extensive range of other forms of sellers (Aspers, p. 203). Their competitiveness modifies due to the diverse product types they supply. Secondly, the financial situation of the countries is the massive cause of hindrance for the clientele to reduce their shopping requirements so as to meet their standard of living. Spitalfields business practices get influenced by the political scenarios of the host as well as the home regions. It is offering high wage rate to its staff due to its agreement with the union bars and it has lay down new principles for its staff regardless of the political guidelines of a state. The economic scenario for Spitalfields continues to be steady as the sales of the business is in consistent with the financial system (Pappalepore et al, p. 221). The economic aspects on which the performance of Spitalfields is based are the arrangements of tax disbursement, investment and grants, complexity of moving as well as raising funds, costs of the merchandise, financial and economic guidelines and rates of exchange. Cultural diversity is an important factor for Spitalfields and multi-cultural workers is the key to its employee dealings. Market’s trade practices are helpful in enhancing its relations and standing with the clientele, workers and with

Case 8 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case 8 - Assignment Example The perception that greening affects bottom line has begun losing ground. It is a changed mindset among business organizations that has given a big fillip to myriads of environment-friendly business activities. Various measurement techniques including the Green Confidence Index or indices such as S&P/IFC Carbon Efficient Index distinguish organizations on the critical aspect of pollutants they create. Investor community patronizes those organizations that work harder reducing carbon footprint. The companies such as Wal-Mart, Google, IBM, Procter & Gamble, Hewlett-Packard, Dell Inc, General Electric, Intel Corp. have done pioneering efforts meeting sustainability objectives. Developing countries such as China too have been found supporting sustainable business practices though many companies in the US need to create pressure on their overseas suppliers to meet certain minimum standards that protect environment. According to the writer, studies reveal that the company's performance, ov er time, improves with its greening efforts. Soon a time will come when business performance will not be measured only through growth or profitability parameters but how the company as a business organization has fared on reducing its carbon footprint. ... ening' is a new buzz word for organizations showing their commitment not only towards society but also a larger interest of sustaining life on this planet. Even if 'greening' is not good for bottom line in a conventional sense, the efforts are appreciated by all stakeholders of the organization. It is a natural transition from a process that started with producing goods fulfilling the needs of customers to satisfying the needs of environment as well. After all, survival and sustainability issues are the concerns of all that live on this earth. The fact remains that greening has become an intrinsic part of the most organizations in the US. Consumers do not patronize those business organizations that ignore this crucial aspect in their day-to-day operations. Over time, consumers have become enlightened after seeing the horrendous consequences of climate change in most part of the world due to unfriendly environmental practices followed in last several decades. The global warming has ca used catastrophic climate changes across all parts of the world leading to increased frequency of cyclones, drought, melting of icebergs leading to submergence of low lying areas causing displacement of populace, or above normal precipitation in many parts of the world. Even economic slowdown has not derailed environmental-friendly practices because the perception that greening adds to the cost has not been found true in a broader sense. When large organizations, especially in the developed countries, are putting consistent efforts reducing carbon footprints as a part of their social responsibility, it becomes imperative on part of others to follow the suit regardless of its cost implications. It is true that certain businesses such as textile processing, chemicals, color and pigments

Explore significant differences from Western models of consumer Essay

Explore significant differences from Western models of consumer behaviour in different parts of the world - Essay Example Companies have models in marketing and research in Western sales markets designed to identify or predict responses and involvement level based on their characteristics unique to specific target markets. What separates Western views of consumer behaviour from regionalized marketing strategy is the quantity of research information provided on consumer lifestyle in the U.S. and United Kingdom (as two examples) versus resource restrictions in the international community on market characteristics and homogeneity. Additionally, the approach to Western consumers is one in which the business must have flexibility and adaptability in areas of production and procurement in order to find sales success. This means oftentimes restructuring the organisation to support new product development or rapid innovation, however largely driven by external consumer behavioural characteristics. Foreign marketers are often limited through resource allocation concerns or simply do not have enough localized market knowledge to proceed with effective marketing strategies. The Western model of consumer behaviour is rather generic when compared to international models, especially in terms of use of the positioning map and the five stage involvement model running from problem recognition through supplier selection. Basic human behavioural traits act as the foundation for these models common throughout the world, thus rather standardized. Based on segment preferences, either demographic, geographic or psychographic related to lifestyle or attitude, Western models identify the consequences of decision-making, based on certain environmental conditioning scenarios or social influence, and predict buying trends using modified or standardized version of the selection and purchase processes. However, Martin-Consuegra, Molina & Esteban (2008) identify a key difference in Western consumer behaviour models related to market orientation. A

Review and Critically Evaluate the Relevance and Contribution of HR to Essay

Review and Critically Evaluate the Relevance and Contribution of HR to Organisational Success and Effective Change Management - Essay Example Armstrong defines human resource management as a â€Å"strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organisation’s most valued assets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives† (cited in Stolt, 2010, p.2). This paper will critically evaluate the relevance and contribution of HR to organisational success and effective change management. Contribution of HR to organisational success In the today’s competitive business environment, HR plays a pivotal role in determining the organisation’s operational efficiency and profitability. As Wright (2003) believes, many of the corporate scandals over the last few decades can be attributed to the failure of HR. A number of studies have indicated that HR evidently contributes to organisational success. Importance of service sector has been steadily increasing for the last two decades and hence the economy tends to be more service based. Hence, it is essential for organisations engaged in service sector to keep their workers motivated and productive. According to Valencia (n.d), there is a close connection between employee motivation and employee productivity. Studies point that financial incentives and other employee benefits are the best ways to keep employees motivated. A firm’s HR management deals with all types of employee benefits including healthcare, retirement, dependent care, college tuition, and worksite accident claims (NC Department of Health and Human Services, 2012). In addition to employee benefits that are mandated by law, organisations voluntarily provide their employees with some additional benefits. For this purpose, HR managers explore employees’ actual family needs and thereby make the firm’s employee benefits packages flexible enough to help the company save money (Reference for Business, 2012). Even in manufacturing and traditional industries, competitiveness has become o ne of the major determinants of organisational success and therefore firms in these sectors frame strategies that facilitate economic and effective use of their resources. It is evident that human capital is the most important resource of an organisation and hence effective HR strategies would assist the firm to make its employees more productive. Increased productivity would directly contribute to an increase in revenues and thereby profitability. In the view of Cohen et al (n.d), HR is a better strategy to ensure the firm’s long term sustainability. Evidences suggest that improved HR would be beneficial for an organisation to eliminate unnecessary costs resulting from production wastage, employee motivation programs, and rigorous sequence of quality checks (The Strategic Human Resource Management Model, n.d). HR system aids an organisation to ensure that its training programs are designed on the basis of focused and topical methods (Management study guide, n.d). Deb (2006) opines that effective human resource management may be a potential way to encourage employee creativity and thereby seize more expansional opportunities. When an employee is allowed to use his creativity, he may get the feeling that ‘it is my organisation’ and such an employee’s view would directly contribute to organisational productivity. In order to ensure organisational su

Leadership Development Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership Development Project - Essay Example This would be considered a rare trait among most of the citizens of the other countries as it was expected that they had to fight back as a form of fighting for their rights. Leaders’ reaching a consensus through meetings was also a preferred method in maintaining peace between the two rivalry parties (Cromwell & Kolb, 2004). Results From the studies conducted, it was clear that non violence did help the members of the Indian community to stay in peace as long as they did not undertake violence. Other alternative measures suggested could be the holding of talks with the leaders of the opposition in an attempt to find a solution to the grievances that were being presented especially the idea of poor housing conditions (Burman & Evans, 2008). Interpretation Most countries prefer t use violence as a mode of conflict resolution and this implies that the use of non violence measures may not be effective or may take long to be successful in certain countries. To make the leadership process a success, leaders from the two parties had to ensure that they both reached a consensus on how to govern citizens from both the masters and the slaves. Leader Profile Mahatma Gandhi was a great leader who heard several stories of leaders like Shravana and they were a source of inspiration as he grew up. During his years he wished for a country that would maintain peace through non violence while civil disobedience for those countries that were more likely to be victims of war. He held civil rights movements in South Africa in an attempt to against the civil discrimination being faced by Indians. His fight against racism made him a hero in the face of the Indians and this left a mark of history down the lane. The struggle for the civil rights for his people became a common interest for him as he became interested in setting his men free from the tight hands of slavery. He was against the discrimination against the Africans too and this was even experienced by himself when he was thrown out of the train. This indicated to him that discrimination had become rampant in all aspects that were a basic requirement to the Africans and also Indians. Such acts that he encountered in person made his ego for social activism to rise and went out to agitate for rights on social injustice. He had been a victim of racism, injustice and prejudice from the whites and it was time for him to show the way for the marginalized groups in South Africa. He helped the Indians in South Africa to fight against a bill that was to be passed denying them the right to vote. His principle of Satyagraha in which they had to devote themselves to truth was to be upheld in every aspect (Surendra & Goolam, 2005). They found it better for them to suffer the punishments than be involved in wars. Book Report Lussier, R. N. & Christopher, F. A. (2009). Leadership: Theory, Application, & Skill Development. New York: Cengage Learning. Good leadership can be ensured through the aspect of skill de velopment where individuals in the leadership positions have to be innovative in order to ensure that their style of leadership is one that will be accepted by all in the society or country at large. The various leadership functions have to be addressed with reference to the areas of interest and this has been clearly indicated in the book which provides a step by step model of how to deal with the guidelines (Luisier et al, 2009). Leaders are expected to have critical

Romantic and Neoclassic artwork Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Romantic and Neoclassic artwork - Essay Example While neoclassical artwork mainly focused on the Roman history with the elevation of Roman heroes and emphasis on rules and order, romantic artwork on the other hand arose during the age of passion gave the perception of being a reaction to the classical and the Neoclassical artwork which were contemplative in nature (Litvak 35). While neoclassical artwork was mainly identified from their classical themes with the use of archaeological settings and the use of classical costumes, romantic artwork was mainly identified by their bold and dramatic paintings with the main themes being on heroism, exoticism, individualism and increased nationalism. Consequently, it was evident that while neoclassical art was all about logic, reason and attempted objectivity, romantic art could be more associated with intuition, imagination and emotion, and mostly accepted subjectivity. And while romantic art bold and dramatic art characterized romantic art, neoclassical art was mainly characterized with po rtraits and paintings without

Troubadors Paper Essay Example for Free

Troubadors Paper Essay It is unlikely, in this day and age, that one could be privy to likes of troubadours, as recounted in the works of Jaufre Rudel and   Bernart de Ventadorn.   Their works, A Love Afar and The Skylark, are similar in that they both speak of a love that for one reason or another has been unreachable to them.   Rudel, in A Love Afar, is pining for a woman he has never met, nor even seen, but has an attraction for based on the information he has been given by other pilgrims. â€Å"My pilgrim’s staff and cloak might shine.†Ã‚   Rudel professes to worship this love from afar, â€Å"They call to mind my love afar.†Ã‚   His work follows the path of courtly love, which is typical of the medieval era.   Rudel declares his devotion to his love, â€Å"Gladly I’d lie at her command, a captive in a Moorish land.†Ã‚   Also typical of medieval courting, Rudel speaks of physical manifestations of the love that he seeks afar, â€Å"My curse fall on that godsire’s heart, who’s cursed me so my love runs ill.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The tenor of Bernart de Ventadorn’s work, The Skylark, lacks the hope that is present in Rudel’s writing.   The Skylark, is the writing of a man who is daunted by the love that he has lost.   â€Å"Alas, I thought I’d grown so wise; in love I had so much to learn:   I can’t control this heart that flies to here who pays no love return.†Ã‚   Where Rudel felt that he had been blessed by love, even promised love by God, Ventadorn has been cursed by a love that has stolen the very life from him.   â€Å"Losing control, I’ve lost all right to rule my life†¦deep in despair.†Ã‚   Ventadorn presents no benefit from the love he seeks or sought, whereas Rudel sees benefit even if he should die in the end.   Ventadorn has been scorned by love.   â€Å"I’ll place no trust in women though I did before; I’ve been there champion so it’s just that I renounce them everm ore.† Rudel has found such promise in love. â€Å"That man speaks true who’d say I burn for naught else but my love afar; now for no other end I yearn, only to know my love afar.   Ventadorn, however, has lost all faith in women, love, and music.   â€Å"Ay! Now I fall in deep disgrace,   a fool upon love’s bridge am I; No one know how that could take place, unless I dared to climb too high. Ventadorn places women on a pedestal, but perhaps realized he had done so unjustly.   Ventadorn’s writing also suggests an adulterous nature, â€Å"Wrongful it seems, now, in my view, to see a creature love’s betrayed, who’d seek no other good but you, then let him die without your aid.†Ã‚   Ventadorn is so distraught that he swears off his writing and music.   â€Å"Tristan you’ll hear no more from me:   I leave to wander, none knows where; henceforth all joys in love I’ll flee and all my songs I now forswear.† Courtship during the medieval era was considered to be an art form.   Both of these writings bring to mind the image of the Knight on a white horse, that sweeps his lady off her feet.   Both pieces tell of love that is challenged by a geographical distance and love that is ultimately fated to die.   Both pieces are ideal examples of noble chivalry that was present in the courting present in the medieval era.  Ã‚   Both pieces place the woman in a superior level to themselves. The image created by Rudel is one of passion, with no price to high, in order to reach his love.   It is almost as though you can see him traveling by boat, â€Å"Such tracks and trails, such land and sea.†Ã‚   One can almost see him battling his way to his love.   Ventadorn paints an image of a man who is angered and retreats to his destination, which is to be alone, as demonstrated, â€Å"I say no more; I silent go; She gives me death; let death reply.   My Lady won’t embrace me so I leave, exiled to pain for aye.† Rudel speaks of his love as a lady, while Ventadorn speaks of his love as a Lady while expressing his love, but then reverts to women when expressing his anger and despair.   Troubadors admired ladies, but feared women.   Ladies were to be treasured, something to desire, while women were almost considered evil.   Both writers seem to appeal to their loves as a method of furthering themselves and their current status.

Nutrition for Pregnant Women, Athletes and Children

Nutrition for Pregnant Women, Athletes and Children Introduction to Nutrition Genetically Modified Food Foods developed from organisms whose DNA is changed by applying methods of genetic engineering is known as Genetically Modified foods. Such techniques allow control over food’s generic structure and introduce new crop traits. Example There is several genetic modified food, some of them are given below: Pesticide resistant rape plants Golden rice Long-lasting tomatoes Soybeans Vaccination banana GM foods are derived from organisms whose DNA has been modified artificially, these crops are to improve yield by providing resistance to plant diseases. In future, genetically modified foods will alter the nutrient content of foods by reducing it allergic portion or improving the efficiency of food production systems. The main health concerns for new genetically engineered food revolve around being allergic or toxic through the engineered process. FDA reports that foods they have evaluated till now are not likely to cause an allergic or toxic reaction (McFadden, 2014). Nonetheless stomach sections presented reasonable erosive/necrotic lesions in seven female rats but no one in the panels but no histology was done as these were deliberated to be of no prominence. Even though in senior humans who used aspirin to prevent thrombosis, this can cause life-endangering hemorrhage (Kok, 2014). Benefits of GM food Some opportunities to use GM foods for good are: Better resistance against weeds, pest and other diseases; such as corn Corn is widely grown and an essential grain in the United States. Corn cannot be reproduced without human aid. The below table shows that what % of food is modified in UAE: Conclusion In order to decide regarding the use and regulation of these genetically modified plants, one must be well informed and aware of this new technology. Gestational and Maternal Nutrition Key dietary guidelines for a pregnant woman Eating a healthy diet during pregnancy is vital for both mother and baby. Nutritious diet can help you promote your babys growth and development. Grains Many whole-grain and enriched products contain carbohydrate, fiber and iron. Meat, poultry, fish, eggs and beans Protein is important for baby’s growth during second and third trimesters. Protein, B vitamins are present in foods of this group. Dairy products Dairy products are enriched with calcium. Calcium fortified soy milk helps to build baby bones. Recommended supplements used during pregnancy Supplement of folic acid is commonly recommended. Sources recommend 1200 mcg of folate (natural form) per day for maximum benefit. To meet nutritional needs, pregnant women are encouraged to consume a rich, along a daily vitamin and mineral supplement. Recommended food to eat Avocados, Mangoes, Broccoli, Carrots Spinach DHA eggs yogurt, Edamame beans Lentils, Oatmeal Nuts Foods to avoid In order to not get ill or harm baby’s health, there are some foods that should be avoided. Nutritional needs of breast feeding mothers Women are recommended to continue eating nutrition full diet similarly to how they were eating during their pregnancy. A breast-feeding woman requires 200 more calories than a pregnant woman provided that the calories come from nutritious foods. While breast-feeding two to three servings of protein must be taken each day. Good sources of protein include: Meat Poultry Seafood Tofu Dairy products Dried beans The foods that are avoided during pregnancy are also recommended to be avoided during breast feeding because it might cause an allergic reaction or harm to either mother or baby. Nutritional requirements of Athletes Key dietary guidelines for an athlete For an athlete there is an excessive and well balanced diet, which is full of nutrition. As an athlete it is necessary to maintain the proper diet , there must be have proper balance of nutrients, minerals, vitamins and well as calories to improve the performance. Supplements The supplements used by athlete are, BS-Vitamins, protein, omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil), vitamin D, magnesium, Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) Athletes requires more amount of nutrients they actually demand from their bodies than even almost equal fitness buffs in order to compensate with the help of nutrients, which can be obtained from foods or supplement, so that performance cab be remained for a long time. In order to achieve them maximum level of performance, there are some recommended food to gain maximum carbohydrate storage, it is suggested by the experts that they need to get around70% of its calories from carbohydrates, along with pasta, fruits, cereals, vegetables etc. Foods to avoid There are some foods which are recommended to avoid for athletes, these foods are avoidable to meet with the maximum level of great performance. The avoidable foods are including energy and protein bars, sports drink and as well as it is also needful to avoid Before running a long-drawn-out there are some recommended ways that must be done by an athlete? The foremost tips for them are: Dont carbo-overload A body can store sufficient amount of carbohydrates in order to keep them going for around 90 minutes approx., which it has to help to sweltering fat reserves for liveliness Make the use of plain and familiar foods To avoid from unwanted gas, diarrhea, inflating, it is necessary to take care from junk foods, avoid unused foods and also keep away from spicy foods as well. Supplements used by body builders There are some supplements used by an athlete. It is appropriate for working amazingly, but if diet is not proper then these supplements will not be very much effective. Those supplements are usually included, multi vitamins, glutamine, creatine, thermogenics, ZMA as well (Perret, 2014). Side effects of supplements As it is known that there are several supplements used by an athlete to improve the efficiency However, not all supplements are effective. Although there disadvantages are more as compared to their advantages. As time passes it weakens the body, in some cases it make the body addicted to these supplements. Nutrition for School-Age Children and Healthy Lunchboxes Key dietary The key dietary for school age children are usually including eat four to five times a day, as well as including snacks, which are healthy for children. Degree of development and frequently eat 4 to 5 times per day, as well as snacks which are full of nutrients. After coming back from schools it is good for them to take healthy snacks, because these snacks contribute more third of the total calorie for the day (Napier, 2014). Supplements recommended during childhood In case of required supplements for children, vitamins and minerals are significant elements of the total nutritional needs. The reason is that body is not able to produce more amount of vitamin, therefore some supplements are required to adequate the nutritional need in children. The included supplements are Vitamin A, B, C and D. As body need multiple vitamins, that why vitamins and minerals should be increased in an adequate amount. In certain, a good and increased quantity of protein, iron, calcium and as well as vitamins A and D is necessary. Recommended food As calcium is most significant in school age children, therefore it is recommended to increase the amount of calcium in their daily routine. They need calcium around 500 mg per day, and the best basis of this nutrient is cow’s milk. As well as meat, eggs, wheat is also recommended for them. Foods to avoid These are the following food, which are avoidable at school age of children, for example processed meats, sports drink, canned tomatoes, sugary cereals (Weichselbaum, 2014) Potential food allergens Along with a food allergy, the human body comes into some reaction process as though that specific food product is risky and unsafe. Due to which the immune system of body produces antibodies in order to fight with the food allergen, the constituent in the food that activates the antipathy. In the schools of UAE all types of processed food, as well as all categories of crisps, fries and chocolates are provided, although now it is going to be replaced by healthier selections such as vegetables and healthy fruits in the Northern Emirates state schools and in all Dubai. Ways to Make Food More Fun for children In order to attract children towards healthier foods, there are some interesting ways by which school age children can easily get interest, for example by changing the color of food into their favorite colors, because colorful foods naturally more attracting to children, like this we can maximize their interest, use fun names of their foods. To encourage the use of healthy food in children. Do some additional efforts, a child can detecthungerand fullness better, Formerly offering a subsequent facilitating or serving, test your child by making them await for a few minutes to observe if they are really still hungry. Healthy snacking vs. Junk food Junk foods usually have high ranks of calories from sugar or fat along with littleprotein,minerals and vitamins. Foods generally measured junk foods contain saltedsnack foods,candy, sweetdesserts, gum, sugarycarbonated beverages and fried fast food. Plain snacks similar plain cereals, vegetables and pasta are correspondingly slightly general. What effect does tobacco/sheesha have on our body and diet? Tobacco is a sort of plant that is usually grown in the southeastern of USA. North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia, are the manufacturers of tobacco (Khan, 2014). Tobacco smoke comprises a poisonous mixture of more than 7,000 toxic elements. In which 70 types of chemicals can cause cancer among the addicted users of smoking. Here are some of the chemicals. Formaldehyde Polonium 210 Vinyl chloride Benzene There are several side effects for long term smokers. Even though the risks regarding health are at high risks among heavy smokers, the usage of tobacco damages the lungs. Condensed lung function and a deteriorating of difficulties from asthma. All smokers are at further risk for: Coronary heart disease Peripheral vascular disease High cholesterol (LDL) Lung cancer Cancer of the mouth, throat and voice box Cancer of the pancreas Cancer of the kidney, and urinary bladder Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Influenza The common cold Peptic ulcers Although it is not well understood, that smoking can have direct effects on the daily dietary routine. Smoking is related with reduced nutrition intake and subordinate body weight. Nicotine accomplished whichever by means of smoking or by smokeless routes, is considered the main constituent of tobaccos. There are many negative effects of smoking on human bodies. Nicotine and the poisonous ingredients in cigarettes not solitary trough the body of vitamins and minerals, nevertheless they also chunk absorption of these vigorous nutrients. Of course tobacco is harmful for body. Percentage of tobacco use in UAE. Several efforts have been done by the government of UAE in order to control the excessive use of smoking in the Arab countries, different number of orders have been made to put health warning on the packets of tobacco and also decided to start some advertisement campaign with the help of TV and radio stations. After several researches it has been observed that the usage of tobacco is not useful for human being, as it damages the lungs, increases the respiratory problems like asthma. Therefore there should have something in order to ban the usage of these types of toxic elements as it is harmful and spoil the precious life of human being. Smoking is self-sufficiently related with reduced bone density of the hip, in body of younger and as well as older persons. What effect does caffeine have on our body and diet? Caffeine is formed by means of numerous plants as a self-protective mechanism, and the caffeine which is added to soda derives from unused produces of tea and coffee handling. Chemicals existent in caffeine arenitrogenousorganic compoundbelong to thealkaloidgroup, constituents that have noticeable physiological special effects. Sometimes caffeine is safe for alders, but on the other hand it has numerous side effects like it can cause insomnia, vomiting, headache, anxiety and agitation as well, caffeine can also increase heart rate and can disturb the respiration. Even amongst grown person, substantial caffeine usage can become the main reason of unkind side effects. And caffeine possibly will not be a respectable selection for people who are exceedingly delicate to its possessions. As soon as the caffeine enters the body it is previously being metabolized by means of the liver and fragmented into theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. The caffeine metabolites are at that point clarified through the kidneys and after that they exit from the body with the urine. Caffeine also prevents the quantity of calcium that is engrossed over the gastric tract and exhausts the volume reserved by means of the bones. Caffeine constrains the receptors of vitamin D, which bound the quantity that will be fascinated (Bray, 2014). For the reason that vitamin D is significant in the absorption and as well as the usage of calcium in bone, further this can reduce bone inorganic density, consequential in an augmented danger for osteoporosis. Benefits of Caffeine Caffeine has several side effects like caffeine assorted along with carbsrefills muscle glycogen meditations sooner after isometrics. Therefore caffeine is healthier than sleep while you have to be alert during driving We can conclude that caffeine expended by means of ordinary sources is doubtless the preeminent meanwhile numerous of the healthiness welfares of caffeine are perhaps fundamentally because of the extraordinary antioxidant intensities originate by consistent coffee and tea. References Bray, G. A., Popkin, B. M. (2014). Dietary sugar and body weight: have we reached a crisis in the epidemic of obesity and diabetes? Health be damned! Pour on the sugar. Diabetes care, 37(4), 950-956. http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/37/4/950.short Kok, E., Pedersen, J., Onori, R., Sowa, S., Schauzu, M., De Schrijver, A., Teeri, T. H. (2014). Plants with stacked genetically modified events: to assess or not to assess?.Trends in biotechnology. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167779913002527 Khan, A., Laronde, D. M. (2014). Waterpipe smoking: A healthy alternative to cigarettes or a health hazard in disguise?. Canadian Journal of Dental Hygiene, 48(1). http://web.a.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=trueprofile=ehostscope=siteauthtype=crawlerjrnl=1712171XAN=95297677h=AzEmhzHPPWlAbfHh5VIyex4T3aYkrBUhX7EKBVrG%2fjuVnCzgQBUsjvM9buJOhAmciOQm370ykgEXoHN%2fmdjNZQ%3d%3dcrl=c McFadden, B., Lusk, J. (2014). Cognitive Biases in the Assimilation of Scientific Information on Global Warming and Genetically Modified Food. http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/162532/2/SAEA%202014.pdf Napier, C., Hlambelo, N. (2014). Contribution of school lunchboxes to the daily food intake of adolescent girls in Durban. South African Journal of Child Health, 8(2), 59-63. http://www.sajch.org.za/index.php/SAJCH/article/view/658 Perret, C., Shaw, G. (2014). 11 Use of Supplements in Athletes. Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes, 167. http://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=enlr=id=b3pcAgAAQBAJoi=fndpg=PA167dq=Nutritional+requirements+of+Athletesots=rpDP8-Vuizsig=IQutYU1r5tOt80PT9__Ld41L7CE#v=onepageq=Nutritional%20requirements%20of%20Athletesf=false Weichselbaum, E., Buttriss, J. L. (2014). Diet, nutrition and schoolchildren: An update. Nutrition Bulletin. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nbu.12071/full

Propeller Aircraft Past Present And Future Technologies Engineering Essay

Propeller Aircraft Past Present And Future Technologies Engineering Essay This is a preliminary report for a project on Propeller aircraft, it aims to show the past, present and future technologies used on propeller driven aircraft. The introduction gives a brief history of propeller engine development. After which objectives section explains what this report hopes to achieve by the end of this project. Few of the main objectives include, highlighting the advancements in propeller blade designs and propeller engines, and detailing the future technologies currently in development regarding propeller aircraft. Also it is intends to explain the argument why propeller aircraft are better suited for intercity travel when compared to jet aircraft due to overall lower environmental pollution. This report then describes the tasks that need to be carried out in order to bring this project to a timely conclusion, the progress that has been made to date and finally limitations regarding this project are outlined and mitigating strategies discussed. Table of Contents Word Count = 2133 1 Introduction Propeller aircraft have come a long way since the early days of fixed pitch wooden propellers that were used by the Wright brothers on the Wright Flyer. These propellers were not very efficient as they were fixed pitch, which meant that they were only optimum in at one engine speed. I.e. either they were good for takeoff but the angle was not right for cruise or they were optimum at cruise but not efficient during takeoff due to high slippage. Figure 1 shows some examples of fixed pitch propellers o different designs. Figure 1, Examples of fixed pitch propellers. Available [Online] at http://www.airfieldmodels.com/information_source/model_aircraft_engines/propellers.htm [Accessed: 23rd November 2010] 1.2 Historical Developments In the late 1920s we saw the development of ground adjusted metal propeller this allowed for better efficiency as blade angles could be changed due to the local weather conditions and the different type of aircraft they were being used on. Figure 2 shows a ground adjustable metal propeller. Figure 2, Ground adjustable propeller. Available [Online] at http://www.legend.aero/options3.asp [Accessed 27th November 2010] These also became outdated by the development of constant speed propeller system, which allowed you to change the pitch of the propeller blades during ground or in flight and this system continues to be used even today. Other improvements of propeller designs from 1930s through World War II included the feathering of the propeller for multi engine aircraft in case one engine became inoperative during flight; and reversing propeller systems that allowed for shorter landing distances and greater ground manoeuvrability. (Delp, 1979) In recent times we have seen the development of composite blades, which are lighter, stronger and more durable then metal blades and are controlled by constant variable pitch changing mechanism which offer optimum efficiency. As the design of the propeller blades have been changing constantly so has the way these propellers have been powered, from the early piston engines to the turboprop engines of current times; each change ensuring better performance and more efficient propeller aircraft. Though the development of the Jet engine in the 1930s by Sir Frank Whittle, an RAF serviceman was suppose to change the game plan for propeller aircraft as turbofan engines were perceived to be the only future, turboprop engines have defied those expectations and are still continued to be used till today. The reason for this is that they provide maximum efficiency in low altitude, short range flights such as city hopper jets. These are usually operated from smaller airports hence the short takeoff and landing (STOL) characteristic of these aircraft gives them the edge over the turbojets. They are also more fuel economical when compared to their turbofan counterparts as the latter burn high quantity of fuel during takeoff and climb out phases and are usually optimum for long range, high altitude flights, due to this they are also ideal as fright carrier aircraft. So for these reasons turboprops continued to be used by many airlines for short haul flights, and hence therefore continue to defy the prediction of those sceptic people who said that propeller aircraft would die out as turbofans were the clear cut future of civil aviation. Figure 3 shows a modern day constant speed, composite bladed turboprop aircraft, from this we can how the design of the blades and pitch changing mechanism s have evolved from the early wooden and metal props. http://images.asme.org/MEMagazine/Articles/2009/December/21224.jpg Figure 3, Constant Speed Propeller, Available [Online] at http://images.asme.org/MEMagazine/Articles/2009/December/21224.jpg> [Accessed] 1st Dec 2010]) 2 Aims The aim of this project is to provide an in depth report of the development of propeller aircraft and their associated benefits over jet aircraft. To highlight why turboprops are best for inter city travel and their relative environmental impact when compared to turbojets, this will be done by analysing the statistical figures for their fuel efficiency, the average fuel emissions per person and the noise emissions of the two types of aircraft; from this one will be able to come to the conclusion that which of these type of aircraft are best to reduce the environmental impact of air travel. Also the past, present and future technologies for propeller aircraft will be discussed and presented to the reader clearly explaining their benefits. 2.2 Objectives The objectives of this report are listed below and explain the issues that this report is going to investigate and the findings it will show. To explore the development of the propeller engines from the early piston engines through to the modern day turboprops. To examine how propeller blades have developed over the years from the early wooden to the composite blades of today, including studying the development of variable pitch changing mechanism that has significantly increased propeller efficiency in each different flight phase. To highlight the benefits of propeller engines over jet engines for inter city travel aircraft and freight carriers. To investigate the fuel efficiency and noise emissions of different types of propeller aircraft, in particular turboprop. To investigate the future technology being developed using propeller aircraft, such as the open rotor concept that was first studied in the 1980s by General Electrics and NASA due to the last round of high fuel prices. To highlight the benefits and drawbacks of distinctive propeller A/C designs, such as the tilt-rotor technology that is employed on the Boeing-Bell V22 Osprey. To analyse future methods and procedures that could be used to reduce the environmental impact of propeller aircraft such as external noise suppression, synchrophasing of propeller blades and active noise control. To investigate the different fluid dynamic studies that have been carried out on various different propeller designs to show which design is the most efficient and why. 3 Analysis of tasks To achieve the objectives of this report extensive research on propeller aircraft will be carried out, especially regarding turboprops. A performance database listing all the appraisals for major turboprop aircraft that are being used in commercial and military environments will be constructed. This will make it easy to compare the performances of different turboprop aircraft against one another of different category and weight i.e. their fuel consumption, ceiling height, max speed etc. In order to highlight the benefits of turboprops for intercity travel, turbojets used for the same routes will also be looked at, in order to give a direct comparison. To investigate the development of propeller engines, propeller blades and the pitch changing mechanism the following textbooks will be used amongst others: Aircraft Propellers and Controls, Delp, Frank, 1979 Powerplant Textbook, Jeppesen, 2002 Jet and Turbine Aero engines, Gunston, Bill, 1997 As well as these books other sources such as the internet and aircraft magazines are to be used. The internet will be the main source of information for this report as it contains vast amount of data and archives related to propeller aircraft and their development, information that otherwise would be hard to find. After the research is completed into each part it will be collated into one report. The main findings from this report are expected to show whether propeller aircraft or jet aircraft have lower environmental impact during short haul flights. Future technologies involving turboprop engines will also be included; in particular the development of the General Electrics GE36 open rotor engine of the 1980s which gave us increased fuel efficiency. Figure 4 shows a GE36 on a NASA test rig. The major drawbacks for this design such as noise, vibration issues will also be discussed in the view of reducing environmental pollution. (Open rotor engine, 2008) Photo Figure 4, Open Rotor Engine [Online] Available at: http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/07/cfm-introduces.html [Accessed] 3rd December 2010) The fluid dynamic studies involving different propeller designs will be looked at to see which blade design is the most efficient and to explain the reason behind this. If time permits Solidworks will be used to simulate fluid dynamics on at least two different blade designs to confirm these findings. 4 Gantt Chart 5 Current status of the project Research has been carried out using various internet sites and information has been gathered on the development of propeller engines, the blades construction and the pitch change mechanism used on propeller aircraft. Also a database appraisal of different props that are currently in use around the world is being constructed, detailing information such as range, max payload, max ceiling etc; this will be used to validate why propeller aircraft are more economical for short haul flight when compared to jet aircraft. Research on the ultra high bypass (prop fan) open rotor concept has shown that the new designs by using titanium, lightweight stainless steel and composite materials offer 15 percent better fuel economy then some leading turbofan engines. The designers for this engine have achieved 30:1 bypass ratio, by employing single or dual propellers with composite blades that have 12 to 15 feet diameter. As composite blades are lighter, they allow for safer operation at higher speeds. But the disadvantages of noise, vibration and maintenance issues cannot be simply overlooked. This information has helped to clarify why this design has the potential for success but also why it is still a long way to becoming a reality. (Jeppesen, 2002) The Bombardier Q400 (Q standing for Quiet) was looked at and shows that this new generation turboprop aircraft produces 30 percent less fuel emissions and is said to be more efficient then an average car, when calculated on per passenger basis. It also employs a revolutionary Active Noise and Vibration Suppression system; that prevents noise and vibration from entering the cabin. (Bombardiers Greener Turboprop, 2008) 6 Discussion Conclusion The research that has been conducted up to now is generic to say the least, but it does cover most of the objectives that are listed for this report. Nonetheless, more specific research is needed regarding points such as the future development of propeller engines especially the open rotor concept; and the potential noise suppression techniques being studied for turboprop aircraft. Research regarding the last two points will have to be conducted over the Christmas holidays as much more information is needed, whilst it is to be ensured that enough time is also taken out for revision for end of semester exams straight after the holidays. In view of the time constraints the study on fluid dynamics of propeller blades using computer software Solidworks will be carried out towards the end of the project, this is to ensure that main objectives of this project are covered as it is assumed that it will take time to get used to operating this software. The purpose of this part is to show which propeller blade shape is most efficient and why. Due to the secrecy of manufacturers regarding their new and exclusive products, especially in the aircraft industry; it is presumed that it will be difficult to get up to date information such as figures and stats for developing technologies such as the open rotor engine being developed by GE and NASA. Along with the already developed tilt-rotor military AC from Boeing-Bell, so therefore general information that is available in the public domain such as on the internet will be used, but the drawback to this is that this information might not be 100% accurate and sometimes cannot be verified. Finally if this report is to be completed on schedule to meet its set objectives then the above mentioned points in this section should be sufficiently addressed on the earliest opportunity to allow time for the fluid dynamic research.

The Great Gatsby :: essays research papers

The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald is more than a story about a mans love for a women, but rather a mans will to achieve greatness as he perceived. Jay Gatsby was a man driven by money and power. He was a man with a vision, a vision to succeed in life. As a child, Jay Gatsby grew up on a farm. He saw his parents as nothing but lethargic farmers. Gatsby knew exactly what he didn’t want to be and that was like his parents. They were people who were content with who they were. Gatsby, on the other hand, was the exact opposite. He wanted to move on. Jay Gatsby wanted to be someone special, someone with prestige and someone definitely with money. Gatsby developed a self improvement plan to help him flourish as a young man. His plan detailed dumbbell exercises, studying electricity, practicing elocution and studying needed inventions. Even his parents knew he was driven. His father said: "Jimmy was bound to get ahead.. He always had some resolve like this or something. Do you notice what he’s got about improving his mind? He was always great for that" (182). The structured drive let Gatsby prevail in his endeavors. However, there are some things people just can’t get away from. James Gatsby desperately wanted to achieve success in life. However, it is difficult to flourish with a background like Gatsby’s. So to escape his past, he changed his name at the age of 17 from James Gats to Jay Gatsby. Nonetheless, changing his name only did so much for him. Gatsby ended up living a life of lies because of his hidden identity. Nobody really knew Gatsby. So in the absence of peoples knowledge, they conjured up rumors. "One time he killed a man who found out he was a nephew of von Hindenburg and second to the devil"(65). These were just some of the rumors about Gatsby. Some believed he was a German spy, while others thought he was a war hero. These were things he had to go through to reach his ultimate goal in life, which was to succeed. After he left the farm, Gatsby went to work for a man named Dan Cody. Cody was a stable father figure for Gatsby. He looked up to Dan and saw what he really wanted to be. "That’s Dan Cody, old sport.

Social Networking Dos and Donts Essay -- Facebook, Social Network

Social Networking sites and application are an increasingly entwined part of our everyday lives. We use them to communicate with friends and family all over the globe, to chat with friends down the hall to decide where to eat, to network for jobs, and to connect with others with similar interests. However, much like any other part of the internet, social networks can be frought with serious security risks, both for your person, and your data. Many social networks will tell you that the more you put into them (your information), the more you get out of them (connections, recommendations, etc.). However, despite the aura of privacy they try to engender, one must keep in mind that social network takes place in essentially public space, with only the barest of mechanisms providing any semblance of privacy. Even seemingly innocuous data shared with the world can be dangerous in the wrong hands. The best attitude to take in order to enjoy the benefits of social networking, while minimizing the inherent risks, is to remain SKEPTICAL and CAUTIOUS. SKEPTICAL of any requests for...

Global Warming Essay Essay

The idea of global became prevalent when the world began industrializing. As the popularity of cars grew and industrial factories began to spring up the air quality suffered. The problem was not recognized because, aside from a few orange skies, there were no obvious effects. Although in this day and age we can see what global warming is doing to our Earth, there are still those people who believe that humans are too small to make an impact. Global warming is too often put on the back burner, and things that seem to be more important are made priority. However global warming is tied back to those things that seem to be a priority. The Earth is our home and should be put first. New York Times, Marjorie Connelly quotes Bernice Schneiderman, â€Å"Economic growth is important, but if we don’t take care of the environment, we won’t be here to enjoy it,† If we are constantly focusing on the economy or other issues, the Earth will get to a point when it is no longer inhabitable. Although this is a serious issue â€Å"31 percent considered global warming to be a natural phenomenon, and 10 percent did not accept the idea of global warming at all.† (Marjorie Connelly). Over forty percent of the population does not realize that our planet is in trouble. This percentage is very much so politically tied. â€Å"18 percent of Republicans did not think global warming was real† and â€Å"sixty-one percent of democrats said global warming was causing an impact now,†. Typically the conservative Republican Party tends to be an older group of people, while the Democrat Party is made up of a much younger group of people. Of course â€Å"those 65 and older expected to see no impact from global warming†, their time is short so they have no reason to care about the climate change. However interestingly, â€Å"Many younger people did, (expect to see impact from global warming) including 50 percent of those under 30.† It is the younger people who care, because they are the ones who will suffer if something is not done to stop climate change. Although the democrats are not taking notice to the climate change, the Pentagon is. Lisa Freidman and Climate Wire report that â€Å"The Pentagon released a landmark report (yesterday) declaring climate change an ‘immediate risk’†. If the government feels this strongly about climate change why don’t we? Not only do they care, but they are doing something about it. Defense secretary Chuck Hagel â€Å"embraced upcoming U.N. negotiations in Lima Peru, aimed at developing a new global agreement† and â€Å"leaders hope to see a draft emerge at the Lima Climate talks in December.† Officials such as Chuck Hagel are aware that climate change does not just mean warmer temperatures, but that â€Å"climate change is a ‘threat multiplier’†. One of the chain reactions that will occur is the obvious rising of sea levels. Rising sea levels means that costal military bases will be flooded, leaving them â€Å"vulnerable† and it will â€Å"complicate surveillance and reconnaissance capability†. What would our nation come to if every costal military base was gone? Countries would be more vulnerable to terrorism and attacks and, those few, but powerful people who do not believe in global warming are allowing this to happen. Besides terrorism and attacks, global warming would also create limited resources. 2014 climate Change Adaption Roadmap warms that â€Å"climate change could leave already weak nations more vulnerable, from restricting food and water to compelling mass migration.† This is why it is crucial for us to do something about the global warming crisis. This is not a matter of warmer summers and colder winters, it is life and possible death for millions of people. Climate change is a largely debated subject, but there is clear and tangible proof of its effects. Although the change is not occurring overnight, Brad Plumer in â€Å"The Washington Post† writes â€Å"the global average is changing over a longer period.† The effects of global warming are apparent in the Annual Global Temperature Anomalies; the records kept from 1950-2012 show an obvious upward trend (The Washington Post). Although winters still exist, every ice shelf has not melted, and we still have â€Å"La Nià ±a† years, the ultimate trend shows that the Earth is getting warmer. The question is, what is causing this overall increase in temperature? The answer is that humans are adding excess carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and â€Å"Climate scientists are quite sure that if we keep adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, that  will trap more heat in the Earth’s surface and the global average temperature will continue to rise over time.† (Br ad Plumer). Carbon dioxide is a large factor in the climate change but it is not the only cause. Other things that effect the Earth’s temperature are natural events such as â€Å"El Nià ±o and La Nià ±a cycles†¦volcanoes†¦ air pollution. There are changes in solar activity and so forth.† (Brad Plumer). Although humans are not the only cause of global warming we are making the climate change more drastic. Since we live on this planet it is important for us to take care of it, so that whatever nature throws at us will not be the end on humanity. â€Å"The IPCC says that heavy precipitation events in the Northern Hemisphere are expected to increase as the planet heats up. But that prediction is for all seasons, not just winter†¦Ã¢â‚¬  What this means is that is there will be extreme weather conditions; it will be raining heavily in one part of the world and another part experience an intense drought. This will effect resources, food and clean water for people, and the overall wellbeing of the humanity. Another effect of global warming is that it will cause the jet streams that help to heat and cool our planet to change entirely. This again will cause our planet to heat up even more,† we’ll still see record cold snaps in the United States as the planet heats up. They’ll just become less frequent over time, while record heat waves will become increasingly common.† The evidence of global warming is right in front of us. On the flip side, although many people whole heartedly believe in climate change, their argument is about as sturdy as the so called â€Å"melting† glaciers. The first of many faults in the climate change theory and campaign is that they do not disclose all information. In Donna Edmund’s article â€Å"Man-made Climate Change is a Myth† she quotes weather channel founder John Coleman saying â€Å"your only speakers are two people who continue to present failed science as though it is the final and complete story,† in regards to the Hammer Forum on Climate Change. The fact that these forums and organizations are neglecting to acknowledge scientific information against their argument is extremely concerning. Could they be intentionally hiding things from the public? When Edmund brings up the important topic that â€Å"The polar ice is increasing, not melting away. Polar Bears are increasing in numbers. Heat waves have actually diminished not increase.† The people who  are arguing for climate change do not have a leg to stand on. This shows that the fight to prove climate change is more of a political movement rather than an attempt to save the environment. Before any of that sounds remotely convincing, where is their factual evidence? Those arguing against the fact of global warming have no concrete facts, but many opinions, some may even say ignorance. Climate change is something that will be debated as long as there is money to have and power to be gained. However it is important to know the motives behind and argument before you side with one. The motive behind proving climate change and doing something about it is to save the Earth and everyone on it. This is matter of loving one another enough to protect our planet. What lengths would you go to, to protect the future of your children and your grandchildren? Bibliography Connelly, Marjorie. â€Å"Global Warming Concerns Grow.† The New York Times 22 Sept. 2014 Edmunds, Donna R. â€Å"Man-made Climate Change Is a Myth.† Weather.com. The Weather Channel, 24 Oct. 2014 â€Å"Efforts to End Shark Finning Make Progress.† 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 11 Nov. 2014. Friedman, Lisa. â€Å"Immediate Risk to National Security Posed by Global Warming.† ClimateWire 14 Oct. 2014 Plumer, Brad. â€Å"The Washington Post.† Can Global Warming Be Real If It’s Cold in the U.S.? Um†¦yes! (January 6)

Oten Notes Engineering Studies Aeronautical Module

Gill Sans Bold Engineering Studies HSC Course Stage 6 Aeronautical engineering ES/S6 – HSC 41097 P0022161 Acknowledgments This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from other sources which is not owned by Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production would like to acknowledge the following people and organisations whose material has been used. Board of Studies, NSW Hawker de Havilland Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Bankstown Airport Padstow Aeroskills CentreAll reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith. Materials devlopment: Paul Soares, Harry Taylor, Ian Webster Coordination: Jeff Appleby Content edit: John Cook, Josephine Wilms Illustrations: Tom Brown, Barbara Buining DTP: Nick Loutkovsky, Carolina Barbieri Copyright in this material is res erved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales. Reproduction or transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the Copyright Act, is prohibited without the written authority of Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2000. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135. Revised 2001 Module contents Subject overview †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. iii Module overview†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. vii Module components †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. vii Module outcomes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ x Indicative time †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ x Resource requirements†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xi Icons †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xiii Glossary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xv Directive terms†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xix Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope of the profession and engineering report†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–65 Part 2: Aeronautical engineering – istory of flight†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–37 Part 3: Aeronautical engineering – mechanics and hydraulics †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–73 Part 4: Aeronautical engineering – materials †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–49 Part 5: Aeronautical engineering – communication †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1–44 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 45 Module evaluation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 i ii Subject overview Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Household appliances examines common appliances found in the home. Simple appliances are analysed to identify materials and their applications. Electrical principles, researching methods and techniques to communicate technical information are introduced. The first student engineering report is completed undertaking an investigation of materials used in a household appliance. Landscape products investigates engineering principles by focusing on common products, such as lawnmowers and clothes hoists. The historical development of these types of products demonstrates he effect materials development and technological advancements have on the design of products. Engineering techniques of force analysis are described. Orthogonal drawing methods are explained. An engineering report is completed that analyses lawnmower components. Braking systems uses braking components and systems to describe engineering principles. The historical changes in materials and design are investigated. The relationship between internal structure of iron and steel and the resulting engineering properties of those materials is detailed. Hydraulic principles are described and examples provided in braking systems. Orthogonal drawing echniques are further developed. An engineering report is completed that requires an analysis of a braking system component. iii Bio-engineering both engineering principles and also the scope of the bio-engineering profession. Careers and current issues in this field are explored. Engineers as managers and ethical issues confronted by the bio engineer are considered. An engineering report is completed that investigates a current bioengineered product and describes the related issues that the bio-engineer would need to consider before, during and after this product development. Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the reliminary modules. The historical development of irrigation systems is described and the impact of these systems on society discussed. Hydraulic analysis of irrigation systems is explained. The effect on irrigation product range that has occurred with the introduction of is detailed. An engineering report on an irrigation system is completed. iv HSC Engineering Studies modules Civil structures examines engineering principles as the y relate to civil structures, such as bridges and buildings. The historical influences of engineering, the impact of engineering innovation, and environmental implications are discussed with eference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and stress/strain. Material properties and application are explained with reference to a variety of civil structures. Technical communication skills described in this module include assembly drawing. The engineering report requires a comparison of two engineering solutions to solve the same engineering situation. Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor vehicles and trains as examples to explain engineering concepts. The historical development of cars is used to demonstrate the developing material ist available for the engineer. The impact on society of these developments is discussed. The mechanical analysis of mechanisms involves the effect of friction. Energy and power relationships a re explained. Methods of testing materials, and modifying material properties are examined. A series of industrial manufacturing processes is described. Electrical concepts, such as power distribution, are detailed are introduced. The use of freehand technical sketches. Lifting devices investigates the social impact that devices raging from complex cranes to simple car jacks, have had on our society. The mechanical oncepts are explained, including the hydraulic concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The industrial processes used to form metals and the methods used to control physical properties are explained. Electrical requirements for many devices are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The engineering report is based on a comparison of two lifting devices. v Aeronautical engineering explores the scope of the aeronautical engineering profession. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession . Technologies unique to this engineering field are described.Mechanical analysis includes aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials and material processes concentrate on their application to aeronautics. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical profession, current projects and issues. Telecommunications engineering examines the history and impact on society of this field. Ethical issues and current technologies are described. The materials section concentrates on specialised esting, copper and its alloys, semiconductors and fibre optics. Electronic systems such as analogue and digital are explained and an overview of a variety of other technologies in this field is presented. Analysis, related to telecommunication products, is used to reinforce mechanical concepts. Communicating technica l information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the telecommunication profession, current projects and issues. Figure 0. 1 Modules vi Module overview Aeronautical engineering is the first focus engineering module in the HSC course.The scope of the aeronautical engineering profession is investigated. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession. Technologies unique to this engineering field are described. The mechanical analysis topics include aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials, and material processes concentrate on those most associated with the aeronautical engineer. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer aided drawing are required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical rofession, current projects and issues. Module components Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the teaching/learning section and additional resources. †¢ The preliminary pages include: – module contents – subject overview – module overview – icons – glossary – directive terms. Figure 0. 2 Preliminary pages vii †¢ The teaching/learning parts may include: – part contents – introduction – teaching/learning text and tasks – exercises – check list. Figure 0. 3 Teaching/learning section †¢ The additional information may include: – module appendix – bibliography – Additional resource module evaluation. Figure 0. 4 Additional materials Support materials such as audiotapes, video cassettes and computer disks will sometimes accompany a module. viii Module outcomes At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to: †¢ describe the scope of engineering and critically analyse current innovations (H1. 1) †¢ differentiate between properties of materials and justify the selection of materials, components and processes in engineering (H1. 2) †¢ analyse and synthesise engineering applications in specific fields and report on the importance of these to society (H2. 2) †¢ se appropriate written, oral and presentation skills in the preparation of detailed engineering reports (H3. 2) †¢ investigate the extent of technological change in engineering (H4. 1) †¢ appreciate social, environmental and cultural implications of technological change in engineering and apply them to the analysis of specific problems (H4. 3) †¢ select and use appropriate management and planning skills related to engineering (H5. 2) †¢ demonstrate skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related to engineering (H6. 2) Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.Refer to for original and current documents. ix Indicative time The Prelimin ary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC course is 120 hours (indicative time). The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should spend on this module. Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours Household appliances 20% 24 hr Landscape products 20% 24 hr Braking systems 20% 24 hr Bio-engineering 20% 24 hr Elective: Irrigation systems 20% 24 hr HSC modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours Civil structures 20% 24 hr Personal and public transport 20% 24 hr Lifting devices 0% 24 hr Aeronautical engineering 20% 24 hr Telecommunications engineering 20% 24 hr There are five parts in Aeronautical engineering. Each part will require about four to five hours of work. You should aim to complete the module within 20 to 25 hours. x Resource requirements During this module you will need to access a range of resources including: †¢ technical drawing equipment – drawing board, tee square, set squares (30? , 60? , 45? ) , protractor, pencils (0. 5 mm mechanical pencil with B lead), eraser, pair of compasses, pair of dividers †¢ calculator †¢ rule †¢ thumb tack or pin †¢ small sheet of thin cardboard pair of scissors †¢ cotton reel. xi xii Icons As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons. The purpose of these icons is to gain your attention and to indicate particular types of tasks you need to complete in this module. The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6 Engineering studies. Computer This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet. Danger This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and to proceed with care. Discuss This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or ebating an issue. Examine This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or watching a video. Hands on This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or conducting exp eriments. Respond This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw an object. Think This icon indicates tasks such as reflecting on your experience or picturing yourself in a situation. xiii Return This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for instructions on which exercises to return). xiv GlossaryAs you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will appear in bold. The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module. aerofoil any surface such as a wing, aileron, or stabiliser, designed to help in lifting or controlling an aircraft aileron special purpose hinged flap on the rear edge of a wing designed to control sideways balance autogyro early form of helicopter with a propeller and freely rotating horizontal vanes biplane aeroplane with two sets of w ings, one above the other cambered arched or curved upwards in the middle oncurrent passing through the same point, foe example, a number of forces are concurrent if an extension of the lines representing their directions all cross at the same point cowling removable cover on aircraft engine drag the force, due to the relative airflow, exerted on an aeroplane and tending to reduce its forward motion elevator a hinged, horizontal surface on an aeroplane, generally located at the tail end of the fuselage and used to control the forward/backward tilt empirical data information from experience or experiment, not from any scientific or theoretical deduction fatigue the condition of having experienced many cycles or epeated applications of stress that is lower than would normally be required to cause failure, but can cause failure under these conditions flap hinged or sliding section on the rear edge of a wing designed to control lift xv fuselage gyro gyroscopic device for keeping an obje ct, such as a rocket, in stable controlled flight ICBM missile designed to deliver a warhead from one continent to another interplanetary between planets, from planet to planet Mach 5 A speed that is five times the speed of sound at the particular altitude (the speed of sound at sea level is approximately 380 meters per second or 1370 kmph) oment a force that tends to cause rotation because the object is fixed in position at one point or because the force is not applied at the centre of gravity monoplane aeroplane with one set of wings nacelle outer casing of an aeroplane’s engine orbit path of one body around another body under the influence of gravity payload weight being carried pitch angle that a propeller or rotor blade makes with the air passing over it pressurisation increasing the air pressure in an aircraft cabin as altitude increases and the air pressure outside is too low for breathing radar radio distance and ranging – an instrument to allow light when ther e is no visibility retrofit to incorporate new parts and changes into old models riveting a method for joining solid sheet materials to a firm support rotors the rotating blades on a helicopter that act as propeller and wing rudder broad flat wooden or metal piece hinged to the rear of an aeroplane for steering satellite a body revolving in some fixed path around another body shot xvi body of aeroplane Consists of small pellets; in shot-peening these are ‘fired’ onto a surface spar a stout pole such as those used for masts or booms etc on a boat. Also the main member of the wing frame in an aeroplane stall hen an aircraft loses lift, usually due to loss of relative air speed, and is in danger of falling streamlined made to a shape calculated to cause the least resistance to motion supercharger a device to force air into an aeroplane engine with pressure to overcome the reduction in atmospheric pressure at high altitudes and so maintain engine power as the aircraft climb s triplane an aeroplane with three sets of wings arranged one above the other wind tunnel a box or tube designed to drive a moving stream of air around an object or a scaled model of the object within it to determine the behaviour of the object in an airstream aw the motion of an aircraft about it's vertical axis xvii xviii Directive terms The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks and examination questions. account account for: state reasons for, report on; give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions analyse identify components and the relationship between them, draw out and relate implications apply use, utilise, employ in a particular situation appreciate make a judgement about the value of assess make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size calculate ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information larify make clear or plain classify arrange or include in classes/categories compare show how things are similar or different construct make, build, put together items or arguments contrast show how things are different or opposite critically (analyse/evaluate) add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation) deduce draw conclusions define state meaning and identify essential qualities demonstrate show by example xix describe provide characteristics and features discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or against distinguish ecognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between evaluate make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of examine inquire into explain relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how extract choose relevant and/or appropriate details extrapolate infer from what is known identify recognise and name interpret draw meaning from investigate plan, inquire into and draw conc lusions about justify support an argument or conclusion outline sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of predict suggest what may happen based on available nformation propose put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action recall present remembered ideas, facts or experiences recommend provide reasons in favour recount retell a series of events summarise express, concisely, the relevant details synthesise putting together various elements to make a whole Extract from The New Higher School Certificate Assessment Support Document,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to for original and current documents. xx Aeronautical engineering Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope of the profession & engineering reportPart 1 contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 What will you learn?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 Scope of aeronautical engineering†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 Unique technologies in aeronautical engineering †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 Current projects or innovations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 26 Health and safety issues †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 31 Training for the profession†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Careers in aeronautical engineering†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 37 Relations with the community †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 40 Legal and ethical issues†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 45 Engineers as managers †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 46 The engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 49 Structure of a focus engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 49 Sample engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 51Exercise sheet †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 61 Progress check †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 63 Exercise cover sheet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 65 Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 1 Arial Arial bold Introduction The purpose of this part is to introduce you to the scope and nature of the aeronautical engineering profession. What will you learn? You will learn about: †¢ the nature and scope of the aeronautical engineering profession †¢ current projects and innova tions health and safety issues †¢ training for the profession †¢ career prospects †¢ unique technologies in the profession †¢ legal and ethical implications †¢ engineers as managers †¢ relations with the community. You will learn to: †¢ define the responsibilities of the aeronautical engineer †¢ describe the nature of work done in this profession †¢ examine projects and innovations from within the aeronautical profession †¢ analyse the training and career prospects within aeronautical engineering. Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to for original and current documents. 2Aeronautical engineering Scope  of  aeronautical  engineering Today, you would pay little attention to the sound of an over-flying aircraft, that is, if you noticed it at all. Yet less than ninety years ago everyone around you would have looked skyward and wondered in awe at the sight. The aircraft of 90 y ears ago was not the sophisticated unit that you may see in the sky today. They were a combination of timber, wire, fabric and a crude engine or two, flown on a ‘wing and a prayer’. The designers of these aircraft were not aeronautical engineers as such. More often than not they were scientists or enthusiastic amateurs.The little knowledge they did possess was the collected result of a variety of experiments with kites and models conducted during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Often the over enthusiastic and over confident experimenters piloted their less than airworthy designs to an early grave. Could this have been a form of natural selection? Many early workers used the empirical data collected from these many failures and a few successes to develop the first working aircraft. This was not always done with reference to pure theory and equations. Basically the cambered wing at a suitable angle of attack appeared to give good lift.Consequently many aircraft experiment ers chose to concentrate on the cambered wing and other ideas that ‘seemed to be a good idea at the time’. However, scientists such as Dr Lancaster had developed and confirmed mathematical theories for phenomena such as lift generation and induced drag well before the Wright Brothers first flew an aircraft. Today’s aeronautical engineers still use models. The test pilot still has to be the first person to pilot the aircraft. However, the Concord and the FA 18 Hornet, could not be designed without extensive reference to aeronautical theory and use of sophisticated calculation.The test pilot will have already flown many hours in a flight simulator which emulates the predicted in-flight characteristics of the new aircraft. This then is the domain of the aeronautical engineer. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 3 Arial Arial bold List the general areas of knowledge that you think a team of aeronautical engineers would need to posse ss to design and build a complete aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ aerodynamics †¢ electrical and electronic systems †¢ materials technology †¢ hydraulics †¢ fuel engines and propulsion systems †¢ structural mechanics †¢ drawing and drafting skills. Before venturing further into the day to day complexities of being an aeronautical engineer you should take a step back to consider the aircraft as an engineered system. Aerodynamics An aircraft is not just a wing with a powerful jet engine strapped to it. Moreover it is the product of a combined effort by hundreds of individual designers and engineers working toward a common goal.As aircraft grow more sophisticated no one person can fully understand every detail that goes int o an aircraft’s design. An aircraft before all other considerations is an aerodynamic entity. It is held aloft by the lift forces generated by the camber and angle of attack of the wing. It is restrained by drag forces created by form and shape of the aircraft and induced through the process of generating lift. The everpresent pull of gravity will eventually pull all aircraft back to earth. The movement of air around an aircraft is a complex thing to understand and at times it is difficult to predict.Aerodynamic theory helps predict the movement of air and the amount of lift generated but it is only a starting point. 4 Aeronautical engineering Aerodynamics is a major concern of aeronautical engineers but there are other equally important aspects to the profession. Reel tricky You will need: †¢ a thumb tack or pin from the sewing cabinet †¢ a small sheet of thin cardboard †¢ a drawing compass and a pair of scissors. †¢ a cotton reel from the same place that you found the pin. Carry out the following steps: 1 draw an 80 mm diameter circle on the cardboard, then cut out the circle using the scissors 2 ush the thumb tack or pin through the center of the cardboard disc so that the pointy end goes through as far as it can go 3 pick up the cotton reel, place the pointy end of the tack or pin into the hole on the bottom side of the cotton reel and hold the disk in place with your finger 4 blow through the top of the cotton reel and let go of the disk while you are still blowing. Blow Cotton reel Pin Cardboard disk Figure 1. 1 The disk on the cotton reel trick Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 5 Arial Arial bold The disk should have remained in position until you stopped blowing.When you stopped blowing the disk should have fallen down. Explain why the disk behaved the way it did. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________ _________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Air moving over the disk had velocity and therefore a dynamic pressure component. Benoulli’s predictions on total pressure would indicate that the static pressure above the disk in the moving air would therefore be lower than the pressure below the disk in still air, therefore the disk experiences ‘lift’. (The disk is pushed upwards by the higher pressure beneath it. ) 6 Aeronautical engineering Propulsion systems An aircraft requires a propulsion system to provide thrust (or in the case of a g lider, a launching system to get it into the air in the first place).An engineer will have to decide the best combination of engine and thrust device to attach to an aircraft. Identify engine types and thrust devices that are used on new or old aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Some of the engine types and thrust devices you may have identified include; internal combustion engine, jet engine, turbine, radial, propeller, fan, rotor and rocket.You will hear more of propulsion systems in the mechanics and hydraulics part of this module. Stress-n-Strain Aeronautical engineers who design superbly aerodynamic aircraft that crash and burn because the wings fall off will not lead a successful career. The aeronautical engineer has to calculate and consider the forces present in all components of the aircraft. They then have to predict whether the material that the components are manufactured from will sustain that load without failure. This prediction must be for the full service life of the aircraft.If a component is predicted to fail within the service life of the aircraft, the engineer will mandate when that component must be periodically replaced. The piston engines in light aircraft usually have a minor service after 100 hours operating time and a major service every 1000 hours operating time. A major service will involve a full strip-down of the engine. Many components, for example pistons, must be replaced whether or not they appear to be in serviceable condition. Other components will be subjected to testing. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 7 Arial Arial boldMaterials Linked to considerations of structural forces are the consideration and selection of appropriate materials. An aeronautical engineer will need to have a good knowledge of the manufacturing and service properties of the materials used on aircraft. An aircraft operates in a harsh environment. During any flight an aircraft is subjected to constant vibration, to stresses due to turbulence, to cyclic pressurisation and depressurisation of the cabin, to moisture and to wide fluctuations of temperature. The temperature on the ground may be 36? C while at 38 000 feet it may be –60 °C.Materials selected must first be readily formed in the shapes required and must secondly be suited to the service conditions. Predict or identify any materials based problems that might occur due to the harsh environment that the aircraft is subject to. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ brittleness at low tempe rature †¢ fatigue due to repeated cycles of stress crack propagation under high stresses, vibration, temperature changes †¢ corrosion due to continuous exposure to the elements †¢ failure under impact †¢ loss of strength at high temperature. Avionics and electrical Modern aircraft depend on many electronic systems to safely complete their flights. The flight deck instruments, navigation systems, the actuation of aerodynamic surfaces, the landing and autopilot systems are now controlled by electronics and micro-processor systems. The design and implementation of avionics is the realm of another engineer, the electrical or electronic engineer.The aeronautical engineer must however be aware of the impact of these systems when designing an aircraft. 8 Aeronautical engineering Control systems and hydraulics The control surfaces of aircraft; elevators, ailerons, rudders and flaps need to move in response to pilot inputs on the control column and rudder pedals. In light aircraft this is achieved using wires and rods. In large commercial jets this is done with hydraulic systems connected to electronic or hydraulic controllers. Cowl Cockpit/cabin Spinner Prop Wing tip Aileron Flaps Fuselage Tailplane Elevator Trim tab Fin and rudder Figure 1. Main parts on an aeroplane If you have access to the Internet visit this Sydney University web site is an excellent source for additional aeronautics information (accessed 30. 10. 01). Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 9 Arial Arial bold Unique technologies in aeronautical engineering Many of the technologies found in the aeronautical engineering profession are not unique in the sense that they are solely found and used in this discipline. The technologies used by the aeronautics industry are also found in industries that deal with similar problems and issues.For instance, if you were to design a high technology, 18 foot racing skiff, you would need to consider and use many of the technologies available in the aeronautics industry, excluding perhaps the requirement for the vessel to fly. Can you identify any technologies that you believe overlap between aeronautics and boat-building industries? Consider the major areas of emphasis in this course; history, materials, mechanics and communication. List the technologies that you believe overlap between the aircraft industry and the construction of high tech boats. __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ materials – such as graphite and kevlar and aluminium alloys †¢ computerised design and drawing systems †¢ wind tunnel testing of airframes and sails †¢ computerised calculation systems. Aircraft design Aircraft design is primarily concerned with flight and how to achiev e this condition safely and efficiently. Basically an aircraft must be aerodynamically sound – have lots of lift and minimal drag.The aircraft must also be as light as possible to maximize its payload and to allow it to get off the ground in the first place. The materials must be suited to the operating conditions and the environment and remain in good condition for the expected service life of the aircraft. 10 Aeronautical engineering The aircraft must also be structurally sound. The stresses in the components must not exceed the component's safe working limits. Nothing ruins a pilot’s day more than having the wings fold up in a tight turn! Finally, aircraft components are often sourced from manufacturers from all over the world.To ensure that it all goes together when all the parts arrive, very accurate and detailed drawings are required by each component manufacturer. These have to be drawn to internationally accepted standards. So, you ask, what has all this got to do with weekend sailors and flimsy boats? Skiff design A sailing skiff, aside from any other considerations, must use wind and air to drive it. A close inspection of a sail in operation will reveal that the sail is in fact a curved aerofoil not a flat sheet of sailcloth. You would notice this particularly on the sail of a windsurfer.The sail develops lift just as does the wing of an aircraft. The hull of the skiff moves through a fluid that you refer to as water. A badly designed hull generates a large amount of drag that slows the skiff down. The skipper usually comments loudly about this situation as better-designed skiffs race past on their way to the finish line. Many designers of modern racing skiffs use sophisticated fluid dynamics software to assist in designing both hull and sails. Similarly, these same designers are concerned with the two competing virtues of low weight and structural strength.In Auckland, in 1995, the America’s cup challenger ‘One Australiaâ €™ broke into two reasonably large but none-the-less rapidly sinking pieces. This was a perfect example of poor strength to weight analysis. Put simply, the structural forces imposed on the hull exceeded the strength of the hull material. The designer sacrificed strength to obtain a lighter hull and paid the price. The strength and modulus of light weight materials such as marine and aircraft grade aluminium, carbon fibre composites and Kevlar are compared to complex mechanical analyses of the hull, spar and sail design. Again software solutions exist and are utilized.The skiff’s final drawings and component shapes may be drawn by hand. Often the drawings are produced using common, off the shelf CAD programs or perhaps specialist lofting software designed for the marine industry. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 11 Arial Arial bold As you can see, the technologies in two seemingly unrelated industries are similar in nature and do over lap. However, the aeronautical engineering profession is distinct in some very significant ways: †¢ The scale of operations and the shear complexity of the calculations involved in aeronautical engineering are infinitely greater. †¢The aircraft industry uses and often develops leading edge technology. Leading edge technology is usually very expensive. Industries such as the manufacturers of small boats tend to acquire this technology when it is more established and the cost of the new technology is more affordable. More about aeronautical engineering technologies You will now learn more about some of the leading edge technologies associated with the aircraft industry. The technologies tend to fall into two broad areas; those technologies used to design the aircraft, and those technologies associated with the materials manufacturing aspects of aircraft.Aircraft design technologies Throughout this course you have been involved in calculating forces, reactions, moments and st ress in two dimensions and only on flat or uniform surfaces. At times you may have considered the calculations a little difficult. Consider then the degree of difficulty that would be involved if you now had to calculate forces and moments in three dimensions, on curved surfaces with loads that fluctuated and using calculus that Extension 2 (4 Unit) mathematics does not cover. Does this conjure up an image in your mind?Now imagine applying similarly difficult calculations to more than a thousand points across a single wing. Are you now thinking that this is getting a little difficult? A modern jet aircraft may contain over a million individual components and someone has to draw each and every one of them. Again, just to make things difficult virtually every component is curved in some special and very critical way. Imagine the most difficult drawing that you have done so far in this course, then multiply the degree of difficulty by ten. Then repeat the drawing several thousand times . Starting to get the picture yet! 12Aeronautical engineering List some systems and products that exist to reduce the difficulty and complexity of designing modern jet aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? One of the most significant is computerised design and calculation software. Others include ‘off the shelf’ systems for navigation, communication and cockpit management. The bad newsAll aeronautical engineers have to learn and understand how to do these difficult calculations. They have to use their brain, some mathematics and a calculator. Aspiring aeronautical engineers soon encounter the complexities of computational analysis (difficult mathematics). They will see a lot more calculation before their aeronautical engineering course finally ends. The good news There are software tools available to assist the engineer in the design process. To use these software tools effectively and correctly the engineer must first understand the underlying mathematics and theory on which these programs are based.That is, you must be able to understand and do the mathematics before using the program. You will now examine four common categories of aircraft design software: †¢ structural analysis software †¢ modeling software †¢ aerodynamic calculation software †¢ CAD software. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 13 Arial Arial bold Structural analysis software The structural analysis of an aircraft is a complex problem. There are not many straight lines involved, virtually every component is curved, even the ones that look straight are usually curved. The loading is not uniform, it varies from point to point.In other words, the l oads and stresses will vary infinitely across the components being analysed. An infinite number of equations could take quite some time. The solution is really quite straight-forward. If an engineer intends to examine the forces, stresses and moments in an aircraft wing, the wing can be mathematically broken up into a large number of sections referred to as elements. The conditions in each element are then examined. The results from each element are combined together to produce a distribution of forces, stresses and moments across the wing. The number of elements considered in this procedure is finite.There is an upper limit to the number of elements to be analysed. This mathematical process is called ‘finite element analysis’. The industry abbreviates this to FEA. Finite element analysis is a very powerful tool but is very slow when done by hand. A very popular finite element software (FEA) package in the aircraft industry is called NASTRAN. This package falls into the category of a computer aided engineering software (CAE) tool. NASTRAN is a high end software tool for critical engineering applications. It is capable of stress, vibration, heat transfer, acoustic and aeroelastic analysis. If you have access to the Internet visit .Select the appropriate option from the software section of the directory to find out more about NASTRAN (accessed 06. 11. 01). Modeling software The production and testing of physical working models is a costly and time consuming activity. An activity that is closely related to finite element analysis is ‘finite element modeling’. In the aeronautical engineering industry ‘finite element modeling’ is abbreviated to FEM. Using finite element modeling software, an engineer can construct models using computer aided design (CAD) parts, submit the models for simulation and observe the behavior of the model under simulation.The results can be used to modify and improve the product designs to yield bette r performance and to better resist loads. A high end finite element modeling program that is commonly used in the aeronautical engineering industry is PATRAN. This product is 14 Aeronautical engineering produced by MSC, the same company that produces the analysis package NASTRAN. Figure 1. 3 was produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using the finite element modeling package PATRAN. This company is associated with the University of NSW and is currently developing a light aircraft that it hopes to put into full commercial production.You can find out more about PATRAN at . Figure 1. 3 A PATRAN generated image of an aircraft under development  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Aerodynamic calculation and modeling software Aerodynamics is concerned primarily with the flow of air and the interaction of that air with objects that it encounters. Aeronautical engineers are usually concerned with the interaction of an aircraft’s outer surfa ces with the air through which the aircraft moves. ‘CFD' calculations can help to predict the lift and drag levels for a particular airframe as well as stall and other performance characteristics.Air is considered to be a fluid and the mathematical processes involved in predicting the behaviour of the air is called computational fluid Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 15 Arial Arial bold dynamics or CFD for short. The mathematics involved is complex but again there is software available which can carry out these calculations. Outline a practical way in which an aeronautical engineer could visualize the flow of air around an aircraft without using software. __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? The flow of air around an aircraft can be observed using a wind tunnel where wind is pushed over a model with smoke streams passing over it. An industry standard software package commonly used by aeronautical engineers is VSAERO. This package allows an engineer to input the surface geometry of an aircraft. The surface geometry is simply the outside shape of the aircraft.The engineer can also input reference conditions such as velocity of the air, angle of attack of the wing and yaw. The package will then calculate and display the predicted behaviour of the air around the aircraft. If you have access to the Internet visit . Under products there is a graphic showing an image of the C-130, the Hercules transport aircraft used by the Australian military at present. Take a close look at what is happening to the wingtips (accessed 30. 10. 01). If you have access to the Internet visit to view a photograph of a real C-130 activating anti missile flares (accessed 30. 10. 1). Computer aided design The last type of software packag e that you need to learn about are the computer aided design (CAD) drawing packages. You’re probably familiar with one of the CAD packages available for use on personal computers. These include Autocad Light, Autosketch and TurboCAD. These packages vary in power and are fine for standard drawing applications such as architecture and medium scale manufacturing. The aeronautics industry uses specialist CAD packages which fit the industry’s need to produce drawings of complex surface shapes and 16 Aeronautical engineering curved components.They also use state of the art, multiple processor workstations with large screen monitors for speed and ease of viewing. The large monitors reduce eye-strain and allow more of each drawing to be displayed. CAD software packages currently used by many aeronautical engineering companies include CATIA and CADDS 5. The CATIA package is promoted as CAD/CAM/CAE package. CATIA can be used solely for drawing and designing. However, it can also be used for CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and CAE applications. If you have Internet access visit to find out more about CATIA (accessed 30. 10. 1). Figure 1. 4 Image produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using CATIA software. The aircraft shown is currently under development  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Wind tunnels To this point all the development tools have been based on computer software. In the aerodynamic calculation and modeling section you were asked to suggest a method of assessing the aerodynamic behaviour of an aircraft without using computers. Many successful aircraft have been developed without the aid of modern computers. In fact the computer models are not perfect.The information provided by computer analysis is usually valid but does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real aircraft. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 17 Arial Arial bold Why do you think this is so? ____ ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Computer output is based on computational methods that have been programmed into the computer.These computational methods are based on theoretical analyses of conditions. Variables are input to reflect real situations and conditions as much as possible but can never predict the precise conditions that exist. Input into a computer is based on precise or perfect data, the behaviour of materials, fluids and the like is not necessarily perfect. The output from a computer program is based purely on the input. Another method of assessing an aircraft design is to construct a very accurate scale model then subject the model to wind tunnel testing.Wind tunnel testing does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real, fullsize aircraft flying in open air. However, when scale effect corrections are applied valid data can be obtained. Model boats on ponds do not behave like real ships, the forces and accelerations are all out of proportion. They bounce around like corks. Similarly model aircraft in wind tunnels do not behave like real aircraft. There are several reasons for this. It is difficult to make accurate models. The sides of the wind tunnel constrain the air-flow. Most seriously, the model is flown in full size air not ‘model size’ air.This is known as the scale effect. Larger size models in larger size wind tunnels give the most meaningful data. The most sophisticated wind tunnels actually compress the air at up to 25 atmospheres to correct for scale effect. Most aircraft design is based on both CFD and wind tunnel analysis. This is because neither system gives perfect results. The following photograph shows a model under test in a wind tunnel at the University of NSW. 18 Aeronautical engineering Figure 1. 5 A model aircraft being tested in a wind tunnel  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty LtdManufacturing technologies and systems unique to the aeronautics industry Aeronautical engineers also deal with materials and manufacturing processes that are highly specialized in their nature and could be considered unique. The materials used for aircraft manufacture need to possess very special manufacturing and service properties. List five properties which you believe are important for materials used in aircraft manufacture and construction. Give your reasons for each choice. Property Reason why it is important Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 19 Arial Arial bold Did you answer?Property Reason why it is important Low fatigue aircraft vibration can cause fatigue failures High strength to weight lower the overall weight Corrosion resistance resist harsh operating conditions Ductility (before forming) Provide for forming of c omplex shapes Elasticity allow the aircraft to flex Later, in the materials section of this module you will investigate the materials commonly used in the aircraft manufacturing industry. This section is more concerned with the technologies used when dealing with these materials. Advanced composite materials Two commonly used materials are aluminium and carbon fibre